Connecting Citizens to Their Governments: Lessons from ICT-Based Governance Initiatives in Indonesia

"It is...fair to conclude that the use of ICTs in governance does strengthen community participation and improve public services, and government responsiveness and accountability."

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have become increasingly common in governance initiatives in Indonesia. Established by both the government and civil society organisations (CSOs), these initiatives have sought to increase public accountability, improve the delivery of public services, and strengthen the capacity of civil society to engage in accountability work. This research, conducted in 2016 with Making All Voices Count funding, examines 10 ICT-based governance initiatives in Indonesia, with a focus on open data initiatives, in an effort to improve understand better how and why these initiatives were conceived and adopted in the ways that they were, and to assess their potential as models that can be rolled out or scaled up in other settings in Indonesia. The key themes covered in the paper are: ICTs for governance; ICT ecosystems; and public service delivery.

Section 2 sets out the key concepts for understanding ICT-based governance initiatives in Indonesia, examining: the role of ICTs in good governance generally; the use of digital or "e-government" tools and platforms in the country; the broader context of decentralisation, which started in 2001, and public finance reform, which started in 2003; and ICT ecosystems, the actor-network theory, and the conception-adoption model. To expand a bit on the latter set of topics, the idea is that ICTs do not merely involve technical matter, but also include the context, or "ecosystem", in which different stakeholders and actors use and implement ICTs. The various types of decisions and processes that exist in ICT ecosystems can be grouped into 2 phases and 4 moments:

• The conception phase, which comprises: (1) the problematisation moment, which is the process of defining a problem, and determining and agreeing on which issues will be addressed - the result of which is an idea or solution; and (2) the interessement moment - the translation of that idea or solution into programming that locks actors into the roles proposed for them in the solution.
• The adoption phase, which includes: (1) the engagement or enrolment moment, in which initiators define and interrelate the various roles allocated to others; and (2) the mobilisation moment, which is determined in the interessement and engagement/enrolment phases, to realise the idea produced in problematisation phase.

As detailed in Section 3, the ICT ecosystem concept was used to explore the relationships between the ICT-based governance initiatives studied and the human and non-human entities (e.g., existing technology, enforced regulations, data, knowledge developed from project implementation) that interact with them. The proof-of-concept study used a qualitative approach, gathering information from policymakers, the initiators of ICT projects, people from the initiatives' intended communities, and other stakeholders. This helped the researchers to explore how these diverse innovations were conceptualised and adopted. It also enabled them to assess their impacts on citizens' experiences of governance, in terms of government responsiveness and active citizenship. Drawing on the actor-network theory, they then developed a model to explain how innovations develop, and how the actors and technologies interact with each other and with their surrounding ecosystems. This was tested by gathering the "stories" - their chronology, impacts, and the actors and devices involved - of the 10 initiatives.

Section 4 presents the main findings from the 10 case studies, which, in brief, are as follows:

1. EMAS/SIJARIEMAS - a referral exchange system as an SMS (short messaging service, or text) gateway to address the disconnect between pregnant mothers and their hospitals or health centres
2. BSID - a waste-management information portal in Bandung City (West Java Province)
3. Check My School - a system for collecting communities' complaints on school services
4. GDM - aims to improve village self-reliance through information technology, particularly use of the internet
5. LAPOR! - uses various channels and applications, including new systems such as an SMS gateway and existing channels such as social media (e.g., Twitter), to address the disconnect between the Presidential Staff Office and citizens
6. Bojonegoro's LAPOR! adaptation - involves authorities in Bojonegoro Regency adopting an open approach to government and undertaking innovations to increase accountability in governance (many strategies involved the use of ICTs)
7. LAPOR BOS - designed to give schools and communities a mechanism for making complaints about problems with implementation of the School Operational Aid programme (known locally as Bantuan Operasional Sekolah, or BOS)
8. Jakarta Smart City - includes citizen-complaint software and a government response-monitoring application
9. Village Information System - a participatory data-collection system
10. SMS Iklim dan Cuaca - an SMS gateway programme that provides climate and weather information

Section 5 provides some comparative analysis of these case studies, addressing the study's research questions. In brief, each of the ICT-based governance initiatives was designed with the following theory of change: that it is possible to improve people's lives and livelihoods by connecting citizens and government more effectively, improving communication about governance and public services, and building the institutions and practices of community participation in governance. In each initiative, the overall aim was to address disconnects between citizens and government in terms of information and communication, participation in governance processes, and/or official responsiveness to community needs. In each case, the extent to which the specific theory of change proved correct was determined by the interactions between: the combination of actors (e.g., ICT initiators, project implementers) that constituted the ICT ecosystem of the initiative; the technology options available; and the governance arrangements within which the initiative was implemented. The authors draw out lessons about the influence of ICT ecosystems in the 10 case studies and share key areas of learning about how ICT-based governance initiatives work. They discuss the need to: understand ecosystems, understand disconnection, understand circular approaches, understand the importance of harmonising online and offline elements, and be flexible in implementation.

In Section 6, the authors draw conclusions and offer some suggestions for future research on the impact of ICT-based governance initiatives. In summary:

• A participatory process contributes to the overall effectiveness of an ICT initiative. Participatory processes occur when: (1) the initiative opens up space for participation by other actors; (2) there is a flexible development approach that allows for actions beyond the project's initial scope; and (3) the conception and adoption processes are circular rather than linear.
• Involving outside actors helps to ensure that the end product - the ICT initiative - has a greater connection to its ecosystem, and is therefore more likely to achieve impact. It allows the initiator to gain a deeper understanding of the problems the initiative needs to address.
• A strong understanding of the ICT ecosystem by the initiator and implementer is central to success. Having this understanding, which develops during the project, makes it easier for these actors to identify the multiple disconnections that can occur (e.g., between government and citizens, between service providers and users, between information sources and communities).
• The wider ICT ecosystem, such as the policy environment, needs to be open and flexible. Government policies that create space for ICT initiators and implementers can support new initiatives and help them to be successful.

Among the recommendations to emerge from the investigation:

• Research institutions and universities should conduct further research - for example, to study the behaviour of the many ICT actors working in governance and to ask how this behaviour influences public service delivery.
• Donors and other development agencies can play an important role in developing knowledge on ICT-based governance work.
• The private sector's corporate social responsibility funds can be used to develop ICTs for governance.

The research was carried out by the Bandung Institute of Governance Studies (BIGS), a research and advocacy institution working to create justice and welfare in Indonesia by encouraging civil society strengthening processes, democratisation, and development of transparent, participatory and accountable government institutions. Click here to view a BIGS video about the research.